Access to clean water and sanitation is a basic human right. Nonetheless, it remains a challenge for millions worldwide, with approximately 2 billion people still lacking access to safely managed drinking water services as of 2020, and an estimated  4.2 billion people lack access to safe sanitation facilities (Sustainable Development Goals Report, 2022).

This crisis severely affects people's health, well-being, and economic productivity. The lack of safe water and sanitation leads to waterborne diseases, such as cholera, diarrhoea, and typhoid fever, which cause millions of deaths yearly, especially among children under five (WHO, 2022). Additionally, women and girls are disproportionately affected by the water and sanitation crisis as they spend hours each day collecting water, leaving them little time for education, work, or other activities. Moreover, inadequate sanitation facilities expose women and girls to violence, harassment, and sexual assault (UN, 2022). On the other hand, access to clean water is critical for agriculture, industry, and household use.

The water and sanitation crisis has a significant impact on economic development as well. People who lack access to safe water and sanitation facilities often cannot work or attend school due to illness, which limits their productivity and economic potential (Water.org, 2022). Additionally, the cost of treating waterborne diseases significantly strains individuals, families, and healthcare systems. Furthermore, the water and sanitation crisis perpetuate the cycle of poverty. It disproportionately affects vulnerable populations, such as the poor, marginalised, and rural communities, often excluded from basic services and infrastructure (Water.org, 2022).

The global water crisis has reached a critical point, and urgent action is needed to address the challenges faced by communities and nations around the World. This article provides insights on the water and sanitation crisis in Nigeria, with a focus on the recurring issue of flooding, poor water management, inadequate access to water and sanitation facilities, measures to tackle this menace so far, and the strategies to accelerate change in Nigeria’s water crisis.

Each year on March 22nd, World Water Day is observed to raise awareness about the importance of water and the need for sustainable management of water resources. The 2023 World Water Day theme is "Accelerating Change," which highlights the urgency of taking action to address the global water crisis. World Water Day 2023 is to call for accelerated change and collective action to ensure access to safe and sustainable water and sanitation for all.

The Water and Sanitation Crisis in Nigeria: An Insight

Nigeria is facing a severe water and sanitation crisis affecting millions of people in urban and rural areas. Flooding, poor water management, water scarcity, and a lack of access to sanitation facilities are widespread and have significant public health and economic implications.

The recurring issue of flooding is one of Nigeria's most pressing water-related challenges. Widespread flooding has affected over 3.2 million people in Nigeria, resulting in over 600 fatalities and displacing over 1.4 million people. According to the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), the floods have affected 34 of Nigeria’s 36 states,   destroying or damaging over 569,000 hectares of farmland and exacerbating the country’s alarming food insecurity. Flooding not only worsens the existing water and sanitation crisis in the country, but it also causes significant damage to infrastructure, property, and crops, resulting in  economic losses and long-term negative impacts on livelihoods.

The geography and topography of Nigeria contribute significantly to the frequency and severity of flooding in the country. Nigeria is a low-lying area with numerous rivers, streams, and lakes, and its coastal regions are particularly vulnerable to flooding during the rainy season. Furthermore, factors such as poor urban planning, inadequate drainage systems, deforestation, land-use changes, and the construction of dams and reservoirs have exacerbated the adverse effects of flooding in Nigeria.

Figure 1: Frequency of Major Flood Occurrences Between 2011–2020, by Geopolitical Zone in Nigeria

Source: Data compiled from Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters

The impact of flooding on water and sanitation infrastructure is particularly alarming as it causes water contamination and damage to sanitation facilities, resulting in the spread of water-borne illnesses such as cholera, typhoid fever, and diarrhoea. The situation is particularly dire in urban areas, where access to safe drinking water and sanitation facilities is already scarce.

There is also an issue of inadequate access, and poor water management. Inadequate access to water, and poor water management practices majorly contribute to Nigeria’s water and sanitation crisis. According to the World Bank, approximately 70 million Nigerians do not have  access to safe drinking water, and 114 million do not have access to basic sanitation facilities. While evidence has also shown that water sources are frequently polluted with hazardous substances such as industrial pollutants, human and animal waste, and other contaminants, posing substantial health risks to those who consume or use the water (CDC, 2018).

Figure 2: Map illustrating various environmental issues and their corresponding locations in Nigeria

Source: Pona, Xiaoli, Ayantobo, & Tetteh, (2021).

The lack of water and sanitation infrastructure investment is a major contributor to poor water management. Nigeria's water and sanitation infrastructure is outdated and inadequate, with no infrastructure in many areas. As a result, only a small percentage of the population has access to clean and safe drinking water and sanitation facilities. Additionally, pollution of water sources due to inadequate waste disposal and industrial practices is a major issue in Nigeria. This pollution makes it challenging to obtain clean and safe water for drinking, and it has a detrimental effect on the environment and health of the people who depend on these water sources.

Nigeria faces a significant water scarcity challenge despite having abundant water resources - more than 215 cubic kilometres of available surface water per year. This issue is due to poor water management practices and inadequate infrastructure, which renders most water resources unfit for human consumption. The average Nigerian consumes only 9 litres of water per day, which falls below the national acceptable minimum standards of 12 to 16 litres per day. According to the World Resources Institute (WRI), Nigeria's per capita water availability has decreased, exacerbating the scarcity challenge.

This decrease in water availability results from rapid population growth, urbanisation, and industrialisation. all of which have exerted significant pressure on the country's water resources. As a result, water sources have been depleted and polluted, leading to the current scarcity situation.

Measures Implemented to Tackle Nigeria's Water Crisis

The Nigerian government has been taking significant steps to address the water and sanitation crisis in the country. In 2000, the government implemented the National Water Supply and Sanitation Policy to improve access to safe drinking water and sanitation facilities. The National Action Plan on Water Supply and Sanitation, launched in 2012, also provides a framework for addressing the water crisis in the country. The recent National Development Plan 2021-2025 has set a goal of achieving all access to water and sanitation by 2030 and ending open defecation by 2025 in compliance with SDGs 6.1 and 6.2.

To achieve these goals, the Nigerian government plans to invest an estimated 1.60 trillion naira over the next five years to extend water supply access and improve sanitation services to 90 per cent of the population. The government also launched the Clean Nigeria Campaign in 2018 to eradicate open defecation, committing ₦10 billion to these programs in 2019. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the allocation for these plans was only ₦12 million in the 2020 budget and N60.9 million in 2022.

In 2021, the government implemented various measures to enhance access to water and sanitation, including creating more than 2,300 Water Points and constructing 6,546 hygiene facilities and sanitation compartments in different parts of the nation. Individual and collective efforts at the community level have also contributed to improving access to safe drinking water and sanitation facilities. Many Nigerians have taken it upon themselves to provide clean water to their communities by digging wells, constructing water tanks, and other similar initiatives.

Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) have also played a critical role in addressing the water crisis in Nigeria. Several CSOs are working to provide safe drinking water and sanitation facilities to underserved communities in the country. These organisations have also advocated for policy reforms and increased investment in the water sector. Overall, while progress has been made, much work is still needed to ensure access to safe drinking water and sanitation for all Nigerians.

However, despite the efforts of the Nigerian government to address the water and sanitation crisis in the country, there are still several challenges that need to be addressed. One of the major defects is the inadequate budget allocation and funding for water and sanitation infrastructure. For instance, the budget allocation to water and sanitation infrastructure development in Nigeria has been below the international requirement of 2 percent (see figure 3A). Although the government has set a goal of investing 1.60 trillion naira over the next five years to extend water supply access and improve sanitation services to 90% of the population, the allocation for these plans in the 2020 budget was only ₦12 million due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This indicates a lack of commitment to addressing the water and sanitation crisis. Additionally, there is a lack of coordination between the different tiers of government in the implementation of water and sanitation programs, resulting in duplication of efforts and inefficiencies. Corruption and mismanagement of funds have also been identified as major challenges that undermine the effectiveness of water and sanitation interventions in Nigeria (NIH, 2018). Therefore, sustained efforts are required to address these challenges and ensure that access to safe drinking water and sanitation facilities is available for all Nigerians.

Strategies for Accelerating Change in Nigeria's Water Crisis

The role of individuals and communities: Individuals and communities play a crucial role in accelerating change toward a water-secure world. Individuals can take small but impactful actions, such as conserving water, reducing pollution, and promoting sustainable water management practices. Communities can also play a role in improving access to safe water and sanitation facilities through the establishment of community-led initiatives, such as water committees or community-based organisations. Furthermore, individuals and communities can advocate for policy changes that prioritise sustainable water management practices and ensure that vulnerable populations can access safe water and sanitation facilities.

The need for investment in water and sanitation infrastructure: Investment in water and sanitation infrastructure is crucial to accelerating change towards a water-secure world. This investment includes building and upgrading water treatment plants, distribution systems, and sanitation facilities. Investment in water and sanitation infrastructure is also essential for ensuring access to safe water and sanitation facilities for vulnerable populations, such as the poor, marginalised, and rural communities. For instance, the share of budget to the Ministry of water resource over the last ten years has been below 2 percent (see figure 3A), indicating its inadequacy. Furthermore, according to an OECD report 2022, to achieve universal access to safely managed water supply and sanitation for all, it is recommended that countries allocate 1 -2% of their GDP towards the development of water supply and sanitation infrastructure from 2015 to 2030, however, the share of GDP to water supply and sanitation infrastructure in Nigeria has been below 1 percent overtime (see figure 3B).  Governments, international organisations, and private sector actors must invest in water and sanitation infrastructure to ensure everyone can access safe and sustainable water and sanitation.

The importance of education and awareness: Education and awareness are critical to accelerating change towards a water-secure world. This includes educating individuals and communities about water conservation, sustainable water management practices, and the health risks associated with the lack of safe water and sanitation facilities. Education and awareness campaigns can also help change behaviours and attitudes towards water and sanitation, leading to more sustainable and equitable use of water resources.

The need for international cooperation and collaboration: International cooperation and collaboration are essential to accelerating change towards a water-secure world. The collaboration between governments, international organisations, civil society, and the private sector to promote sustainable water management practices, build and upgrade water and sanitation infrastructure, and ensure access to safe water and sanitation facilities for all. Furthermore, international cooperation and collaboration can help address the root causes of the water and sanitation crisis, such as climate change and pollution, which require a collective effort to address.

Tobacco use kills primary and secondary smokers. While 7 million primary smokers die annually from tobacco use, more than 1.2 million non-smokers also die annually from being exposed to second-hand smoke[1]. Tobacco contains many cancer-causing toxins that harm every organ of the body. Smoking tobacco introduces nicotine and other chemicals, including numerous carcinogens, into the lungs, blood and organs, which causes coronary and non-coronary heart diseases; cerebrovascular disease; chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD); pneumonia and cancers[2]. 

Most diseases caused by tobacco smoking cannot be managed by smokers alone. They require treatment by specialized healthcare providers such as a cardiologist, lung specialist, an oncologist and an informal caregiver. Social support from patients’ informal caregivers is indispensable during and after treatment.

The informal caregiver is defined as a care provider that bears the burden of assisting the patient with physical, psychological and emotional support from the time of diagnosis, during the treatment period, and after treatment[3]. While caregiving may impact positively on the patient, it could also impact negatively on the caregiver who endures the physical, psychological, and emotional costs of care. The caregiver burden may lead to anxiety, depression and impaired quality of life. Although evidence on the health and economic burden of primary smokers has been widely documented, only a few attempts have evaluated the ‘caregiver burden’. In the present study, we assessed the types of burden perceived by informal caregivers and the factors associated with the caregiving burden.

Nigeria continues to miss its financial inclusion targets. Many constraints around the formal banking system have meant that a greater percentage of the Nigerian population remains excluded from the formal financial sector. This article highlights the need to strengthen mobile money as a means of driving financial inclusion in Nigeria.

Introduction

The financial sector plays five crucial roles in the growth of any economy. One is easing the exchange of goods and services by providing a payment system that enables economic agents to pay for goods and services, thereby facilitating trade in the economy; Two is mobilising and pooling savings from savers and, thus, making the proceeds from such fund available for firms in need of funding  Three is acquiring and processing information about enterprises and possible investment projects, thus enhancing efficiency in the allocation of investment funds in the economy; Four is monitoring investment and carrying out corporate governance; five is diversifying,  increasing liquidity and reducing investment risk (Caporale, Rault, Sova, & Sova, 2009).

Among the five channels enumerated, mobile money finds its place within the first (easing the exchange of goods and services through the provision of a payment system which enables economic agents to pay for goods and services, thereby facilitating trade in the economy). Mobile money technology allows people to receive, store and spend money using a mobile phone. It neither requires one to own a bank account nor does it require internet. It is sometimes referred to as a mobile wallet (IGI-Global, 2022). Thus, it is a crucial driver of financial inclusion, especially among the unbanked in remote areas who also lack access to internet facilities and among traders in the informal economy. Mobile money gains its acceptance by this population demography as it requires minimal digital skills. If one can send an SMS using a mobile phone, they already have the digital skills to operate mobile money.   

While Mobile money is considered a key driver of financial inclusion, there has not been enough attention by the Nigerian government to create an ecosystem where mobile money operations can thrive. Thus, leading to the inevitable consistent dwindling of financial inclusion. Since 2012 when the CBN launched the financial inclusion framework, progress has been slow due to several constraints identified by stakeholders, among which include the high capital cost of investments in mobile money, bureaucratic procedures and the requirement for KYC, which involves sim-NIN linkage. The federal government’s projection of financial inclusion in its 2012 National Financial Inclusion Strategy (NFIS), revised in 2018, was to achieve 70% financial inclusion by the year 2020. However, only 64% inclusion has been achieved in the last quarter of 2022, which is a variance of 6%  from the target. Given that countries like Kenya, which prioritised mobile money as a key financial inclusion driver, achieved a remarkable increase in financial inclusion, it would be a smart strategy for Nigeria’s government to pursue a similar objective.

Due to existing obstacles in operating a formal bank in Nigeria, especially the need for too many document requirements for opening an account and lack of access to banks in remote areas, it can be argued that the Nigerian government cannot achieve its financial inclusion targets of 95% by 2024 without putting mobile money at the forefront of its Financial Inclusion strategy. But before further comments, it would be vital to explain what mobile money is about and how it works.   

The Mobile Money project was jointly launched by the GSM Association (GSMA) and Western Union in October 2007  to help the financially excluded to access financial services (Bello & Adenuga, 2013). The initiative comes in three models, which are, the operator-centric model (which involves only the mobile network providers such as the MTN mobile money), the bank-driven model (which is set up and managed by the bank like the POS), and the collaboration model (involving both banks and mobile providers like the use of USSD) . The operator-centric model is the only model that does not require one to own a formal bank account, making it the easiest model for driving financial inclusion. The Network providers offer the technology, operate the transactions and compensate the system without bank involvement or the need for a bank. Because mobile operators already have a large customer base, they benefit from service fees, and in turn, customers are happy to make quick and convenient payment transactions, and the result is an economy with high financial inclusion.  

Despite the fast-growing Fintech sector in Nigeria, Porteous & Omusi (2020) report that about 36.8% of the Nigerian population still lacks access to financial services, which necessitates a need for more flexible financial inclusion strategies such as the non-bank-centric mobile money models. This is evident from the statistics quoted by The Economist that the value of mobile money transfers and e-payments in 2018 was only 1.4% of the GDP in Nigeria, compared to 44% of Kenya’s GDP (The Economist, 2019).

(Account ownership at a financial institution or with a mobile-money-service provider (% of population ages 15+) - Nigeria, Kenya, Sub-Saharan Africa

Figure 1. Financial Inclusion

Source (Worldbank 2022)

As shown in Figure 1, financial inclusion in Nigeria is below the Sub-Saharan African average. Meanwhile, Kenya surpasses the Sub-Saharan African average, which could be attributed to the success of the M-PESA mobile money project. 

This operator-centric model remains the key to driving financial inclusion among the poor, uneducated and unbanked. The model would ensure that all classes of society would have greater access to financial services. A good example of a successful operator-centric model is the M-PESA project in Kenya. M-PESA, which stands for mobile money transfer service, ‘M’ for mobile and “PESA” for money in Swahili, was introduced in 2007 in association with Safaricom, Kenya’s largest mobile network provider. Vodafone, the largest shareholder in Safaricom, founded and owns M-PESA. Since its introduction in 2007, M-PESA has seen tremendous success and serves as the best illustration of a typical m-money service for the unbanked and underbanked. Over 9.4 million consumers and more than 18,000 agents have used the M-PESA initiative since it began in 2007 for person-to-person (P2P) transfers. According to Bello & Adenuga (2013), there is hardly a home in Kenya that does not utilise M-PESA. In fact, up to 13% of Kenya’s GDP was transferred using M-PESA between 2009 and 2010. Through M-PESA, users can make deposits into an account held on their mobile devices, transfer balances to other users (including vendors of goods and services), and exchange deposits for cash via SMS technology.

Mobile money accounts have also begun to gain popularity in the rest of Africa. However, Nigeria is lagging. According to Global Findex latest data (2017), many African countries (especially Kenya)  have shown remarkable improvement in ownership of mobile money accounts, but Nigeria has remained largely stagnant.

Figure 2. Ownership of mobile money accounts in Sub-Saharan Africa

As shown in the diagram in Figure 2, it is evident that Sub-Saharan Africa has made good progress in terms of ownership of mobile money accounts, moving from 12% in 2014 to 21% in 2017. In Kenya, while a small percentage did not have access to mobile money accounts in 2014, this changed drastically in 2017, with close to 100% of the population owning mobile money accounts due to the ease of use of the service. In Nigeria, however, the numbers have remained low at about 0-9% of the population from 2014 to 2017.

Currently, in Nigeria, the dominant form of mobile money is the collaborative model (between the banks and the mobile operators), i.e., the use of USSD to send money from your bank account to another bank account. The problem with this model is that it requires you to have a formal bank account. The tedious process and document requirements to own a bank account in Nigeria make it challenging for people in remote areas and villages to own and operate a bank account. Thus, necessitating the need for investments in operator-centric models. Although there are existing operator-centric models in Nigeria, such as the Paga wallet founded in 2009, the adoption rate remains minimal, which could be attributed to constraints limiting the private sector from innovating and expanding. Thus, the success of mobile money in Nigeria might require the collaboration (investments) of both the public and private sectors in forming public-private partnerships (PPP).

There is no doubt that mobile money has the potential to drive economic growth by encouraging savings which leads to investments. Beshouri et al. (2010) affirm that mobile money has the potential to allow two important questions to be addressed at the same time: on the demand side, it represents an opportunity for financial inclusion among a population that is underserved by traditional banking services. On the supply side, they explain that it opens up possibilities for financial institutions to deliver a great diversity of services at low cost to a large clientele of the poorest sections of society and people living in remote areas.

In the following section, four key facts about why the mobile money system should be prioritised in Nigeria are presented.

FACT 1: Nigeria’s high mobile phone penetration can support faster mobile money penetration  

Although the M-PESA in Kenya has recorded massive success, Nigeria’s transaction volume in mobile money will be even higher due to its vast population. Since 2005, Nigeria has had consistently higher mobile phone penetration than the Sub-Saharan African average (WorldBank, 2022). As shown in figure 3, it is evident that in comparison to the Sub-saharan average (although still slightly lower than Kenya), Nigeria has had a higher mobile phone subscription rate since 2005, which shows the country’s potential in mobile money operations.

Figure 3. Mobile Cellular subscriptions (per 100 people)

Source: World Bank (2022)

Given that Nigeria’s mobile phone penetration is still lower than Kenya’s despite having a higher population, the policy route to maximise mobile money will therefore include a strategy to increase mobile phone penetration in Nigeria

FACT 2: Mobile Money Drives Financial Inclusion

Credit and deposits are now easier to obtain by the unbanked as a result of mobile money service accessibility: mobile money lower transaction costs, particularly those associated with maintaining physical bank branches. In addition, Andrianaivo & Kpodar  (2011) affirm that the increasing use of mobile telephony in developing countries has contributed to the emergence of branchless banking services, thereby improving financial inclusion. They add that mobile money allows expansion and access to financial services for previously underserved groups in developing countries, emphasising that this improved access to financial services for those who are underserved contributes to closing the infrastructure gap in the financial sector, particularly in developing nations where the expenses of travel and time are quite high for conventional banking services.

FACT 3: Financial Inclusion Contributes to Economic Development

Financial inclusion as a strategy has emerged as a global concern for policy, including in Nigeria. It is seen as a means of fostering inclusive Economic Growth and a transmission mechanism for eradicating poverty (Stephen and Wakdok, 2020). Access to financial services stimulates incentives for private investments made by people and thus promotes economic growth (Andrianaivo & Kpodar, 2011). Many empirical papers have presented overriding evidence of a positive link between financial inclusion and economic growth (Chakraborty and Abraham, 2021). The common channel through which financial inclusion impacts economic growth is that financial inclusion encourages savings which then lead to investment, and in turn, investment leads to economic growth. Financial inclusion (especially ownership of a mobile money account) also encourages entrepreneurial activities, especially in remote areas where there is a high risk of carrying physical cash. This growth of entrepreneurship helps to reduce poverty and foster economic development.  

IMF Studies for African countries such as Kpodar and Andrianaivo (2011) have also shown that while mobile phone penetration positively impacts economic growth, the channel through which this happens is financial inclusion fostered by the use of mobile phones for financial transactions. These same findings are replicated in a recent study by Ifediora et al (2022)  for African countries, where the authors demonstrate that ownership of mobile money accounts and mobile money transactions foster economic growth

Finally, the supply-leading hypothesis, which states that the development of the financial sector gives rise to an increase in economic growth, has been validated by several authors (McKinnon, 1973; Shaw, 1973; Schumpeter, 1934; Wesiah and Onyekwere, 2021; Apergis, Filippdis and Economidou, 2007; Vazakidis and Adamopoulos, 2011; Nyasha and Odhiambo, 2015). The authors are of the view that financial institutions and markets trigger economic growth through the efficient allocation of financial resources to the most productive investments.

Fact 4: Mobile Money Makes Lives Easier

Mobile money affects lives positively by making day-to-day transactions hassle-free. For instance, because of mobile money, people in remote areas can easily transfer money from any location to any location just by pressing a few commands on their mobile phones. They no longer need to commute to the bank to wait in a long queue before they can make a deposit. Thus, mobile money saves both time and cost. Secondly, mobile money drives a digital economy that makes people live happier with less banking stress. Another important benefit is that with mobile money, cash payments will be reduced, and traceable payment methods (especially in the informal economy) make it easy to prevent fraud. Back in the days when cash was used, anyone could easily deny that you made a payment to them. But with mobile money, it is easy to make such payments cashless, which is traceable and cannot be denied.

This report examines the potential for industries without smokestacks (IWOSS) in creating large-scale job opportunities in Nigeria, particularly for the young and female population subgroups. With the emergence of technology and shifts in the global economy, the relevance of some industries in economic development have increased. These industries are codified as IWOSS. IWOSS are sectors with higher labor productivity relative to traditional agriculture, and they are also tradable (Bhorat et al. 2020; Heitzig et al. forthcoming). These sectors include agro-processing, financial and business services, information and communications technology (ICT), tourism, formal trade, and transport. The emerging role of IWOSS is particularly important as evidence indicate This report examines the potential for industries without smokestacks (IWOSS) in creating large-scale job opportunities in Nigeria, particularly for the young and female population subgroups. With the emergence of technology and shifts in the global economy, the relevance of some industries in economic development have increased. These industries are codified as IWOSS. IWOSS are sectors with higher labor productivity relative to traditional agriculture, and they are also tradable (Bhorat et al. 2020; Heitzig et al. forthcoming). These sectors include agro-processing, financial and business services, information and communications technology (ICT), tourism, formal trade, and transport. The emerging role of IWOSS is particularly important as evidence indicates that the employment crisis and poor performance of manufacturing have become major concerns in Nigeria.

The study addresses the following questions: (i) What is the employment situation in Nigeria? (ii) What is the pattern of sector growth vis-a-vis performance of IWOSS and non-IWOSS sectors in Nigeria? (iii) What is the potential growth and labor demand of IWOSS sectors? The methods employed include an evaluation of sectors’ performance in terms of growth and wage employment, analyses of present and future levels of employment and productivity, and the use of a value-chain approach to assess employment creation potential and significant constraints. These approaches are complemented with a survey conducted between February and September of 2022 with firms selected from three IWOSS sectors.

Read more

The original Industrial Revolution was powered by steam; the second by electricity. The rise of digitisation and automation generally defined the Third Industrial Revolution, which was largely powered by oil. Today, we find ourselves in the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), which is largely powered and characterised by data. It can hardly be contested that data is central to today’s global economy in ways which it never has been before. Data flows across borders far more frequently than at any other point in time. Most importantly, these flows are creating or have created immense value (at least on aggregate) and are, therefore, central to businesses and business practices. They have fundamentally changed what and how much is traded, as well as with whom and how trade is conducted. Put differently, cross-border data flows have increased the scope, scale, and speed of trade.