‘Tobacco use is killing us and our planet’! Annually, tobacco use kills about 8 million people globally and 29,000 people in Nigeria. The economic costs of tobacco attributable disease on the Nigerian economy is estimated at US$1.71 billion per annum including the direct and indirect costs of tobacco. Tobacco smokers’ life expectancy is at least 10 years shorter than that of non-smokers. Exposure to second-hand smoke is a serious health hazard causing more than 41,000 deaths annually. Pregnant women who are exposed to secondhand smoke are more likely to have a complication before and after child delivery. Children are not immune to this danger; each year, 150, 000 children under the age of five are killed by secondhand smoking. The deleterious effect of tobacco extends to smokeless tobacco,  also a known cause of cancer. The nicotine in smokeless tobacco increases the risk of sudden death due to irregular heartbeat (ventricular arrhythmias).

Tobacco use is not only killing people, it is poisoning our environment! Tobacco endangers the health of the planet with an environmental burden of 600 million trees cut down annually for tobacco production, 200 000 hectares of land cleared, 84 million tonnes of CO2 emitted, and 22 billion tonnes of water consumed. Moreover, agrochemicals used in tobacco cultivation poisons the land, soil and water, and tobacco production saturates the air with tonnes of toxins. Cigarette smoking alone pollutes the air ten times more than gas emissions. In the year 2019 alone, about 4,211,962 cigarette butts were collected from beaches and waterways globally. This implies that tobacco butt is the second most common type of environmental litre after food wrappers. The cigarette butts contain toxic chemicals such as nicotine and heavy metals which endangers aquatic life and microorganism. 

Tobacco Taxation can mitigate these challenges

Tobacco taxation, passed on to smokers in the form of higher cigarette prices, has been acknowledged not only as one of the most effective control strategies for decreasing smoking and its adverse health consequences but also as an effective strategy for reducing the environmental burden of tobacco. Unfortunately, tobacco tax as an effective measure which encourages smokers to quit and prevents others from taking up smoking is the least effective in Nigeria. This ineffectiveness majorly is a result of the low tobacco excise tax rate. In addition, despite the magnitude of the health and environmental burden of tobacco consumption in Nigeria, the overall performance of tobacco tax policies is very poor. The recent 2018 special excise tax on tobacco products only raises the excise tax burden from 12 percent to an estimated 17 percent. This is contrary to best practices and far below the ECOWAS and WHO recommended benchmark of 50 percent and 70 percent respectively. The current tobacco tax structure in Nigeria is too low to discourage tobacco use and protect the environment.

Poor quality tax governance in terms of accountability, responsiveness and sound public finance management is one of the underlying causes of Nigeria’s ineffective tobacco tax system. The tobacco industry takes advantage of the administrative loopholes to undermine tobacco tax reforms. Strong tax administration as well as improving enforcement capacity enhances the impact of higher tobacco taxes (WHO).

Moreover, tobacco industry interference posed a challenge in implementing effective tobacco taxation in Nigeria. The Tobacco industry is one of the booming industries in Nigeria. Domestic market share is around 66 percent, imported market share is approximately 24 percent and illegal market share accounts for 10 percent of tobacco market supply in Nigeria. Given its vast resources and market power, the tobacco industry is a powerful force that is not deterred by government actions. The tobacco industry employs several strategies to influence policy and postpone regulation. Delaying tobacco control laws and authorizing new tobacco products are all examples of these interference. Nigeria's legislative authorities should be active to ensure that the tobacco industry does not play a decision-making role in tobacco legislations.

Increased tobacco taxation and an effective tobacco taxation system should be elevated by the government as top health policy priority in Nigeria. The key viable elements to address the weak tobacco tax system in Nigeria are (i) implement a broad-based, uniform tax that is difficult to avoid (ii) extend regulations and tax policy on tobacco products and sales to eliminate single-use filters and reduce post-consumption waste. (iii) beware of tobacco industry interference and (iv) earmark tobacco tax revenue to improve public health and safeguard the environment. Nigeria's national health systems require a paradigm shift away from fragmented response approach and toward more improved systemic approaches. This could significantly increase funds for health care, improve environmental conditions, enhance public trust, accountability and welfare.

Digital innovations are advancing at a rapid pace, connecting businesses, individuals,  governments around the world and creating exciting opportunities. These opportunities provide numerous benefits and major gains in terms of structural transformation for the majority of economies. However, African economies are yet to benefit from these opportunities.

The global digital market is generally uneven and imperfect, with African countries contributing little to the market's value creation. For example, in 2017, ICT export from Africa stood at approximately four percent globally. Also, accessibility to the internet remains minimal in Africa, with about 47 percent of the continent's population having access, compared to a global average of 63 percent. The issue of digital skills shortages, high-cost structures and deficits in ICT infrastructure are also among the key challenges facing Africa’s digital economy. As a result, it is estimated that most African countries are poorly prepared to capitalize on global digitalization.

Since many African economies continue to struggle with institutional and structural challenges that impede digital adoption and growth, the economic benefit of digitalization remains disproportionate — concentrated  in a few comparatively better-off economies. Closing this digital gap is crucial for preventing many African countries fromfalling behind in the digital space.

Understanding the level of digital preparedness and development across various facets of African economies is the starting point for developing suitable intervention policies. Hence, the Centre for the Study of the Economies of Africa (CSEA) has developed a series of indicators for tracking African countries' digital preparedness, digital development, and data governance regulations. This is known as the Digital Governance Portal.

The Digital Governance Portal has a user-friendly interface that makes it simple to navigate. In addition, datasets and methodology notes are open to the public for download in excel and portable document format. The Portal allows users to visualize digital and data governance indicators over a period, gain access to presentation-ready maps and conduct comprehensive analysis on national and regional levels. 

The Digital Governance Portal

The Digital Governance Portal, a one-of-a-kind portal about the African digitalization space, collects data on digital indicators from a variety of sources. It demonstrates how African countries have advanced in their digital transformations. The Digital Governance Index reflects the trajectory towards building an inclusive digital economy and serves as a resource for policymakers. The Portal is built on three pillars that capture African digital evolution and progress.

First is the Digital Preparedness pillar, which measures an economy's readiness to transit to a digitized world, which is facilitated by improved digital skills, ICT infrastructure and business dynamism. This pillar assesses a specific set of indicators (education, infrastructure, business, regulatory and macroeconomic) that make it easier for a country to integrate, apply, and develop digital technologies locally and within the global value chain that revolves around the ICT sector. The second pillar is Digital Development, which provides specific digital indicators on the depth of development of the country's digital space.

Among the indicators covered in this pillar are the e-government index, the ICT development index, and the proportion of households with access to the internet and computers. Finally, the Data Governance pillar describes the processes, laws, and regulatory framework available for managing the availability, usability, transfer, integrity, and security of the digital space within a country. On each pillar, users have access to statistics on several sub-components from over twenty individual sources covering 38 African economies.

Figure 1: The Digital Governance’s Pillars

Zoom in on the Digital Preparedness Pillar

The summary of African countries performance on the Digital Preparedness pillar is summarized in Figure 2. The highest ranked country is Mauritius with a score of 0.66, while Chad has the worst performance with a score of 0.32. The average score on the Digital Preparedness Index among African economies is 0.47. No country obtained a perfect score of 1 on the Digital Preparedness Index. There are 54 African countries, however, from the data on the digital preparedness index, data is only available for 36 countries which can be viewed on the chart below.

Figure 2: Digital Preparedness in Africa

Zoom in on the Digital Development Pillar

The Digital Development Indicator shows that only 11 percent of African households have access to a personal computer. Also, Africa has an average speed of 6.09 kilobit per second of International Internet bandwidth. In relation to the extent to which businesses in Africa use ICTs for transactions with other businesses, Africa has an average of 4.13 points out of 7 points, indicating an average performance. Also, the heat map (See Figure 3) indicates a strong ICT usage by businesses in West Africa and Southern Africa economies than in other regions. 

The top countries in terms of access to digital technologies are Seychelles (52%), Morocco (43%), and Mauritius (41%). In addition, Kenya, Tunisia, and South Africa are the top African economies with the fastest international internet bandwidth of 23.72kb, 18.75kb, and 18.11kb, respectively. Again, the information elicited from the data points to a few top-performing countries and large underperforming countries, which is a pointer to a high digital divide similar to those observed between developed and developing countries.

Figure 3: Digital Development in AfricaSource: Centre for the Studies of Economics of Africa

Zoom in on the Data Governance Pillar

On the Data Governance pillars, 61 percent (33) of African countries have legislation on privacy and data protection. A similar regional approach to data privacy, the Malabo Convention, has only been ratified by 7 countries.  Also, only 33 out of 54 African economies have existing legislation on electronic transactions, and 46 per cent have laws regarding consumer protections. Data governance is the core instrument to deliver sustained and robust digital development, yet the data from the Digital Governance Index point to Africa’s modest progress in these areas.  The preceding analysis points to the diagnostic and descriptive power of the Digital Governance Platform to policymakers and other stakeholders in Africa.

Figure 4: Data Governance in Africa

How To Galvanize Digital Development in Africa

Statistics from the three pillars (Digital Preparedness, Digital Development, and Data Governance) suggest that Africa still lags and needs to intensify efforts to improve its digital economy. In Africa, digitization opportunities are limited in a variety of ways. Some are the result of deficiencies in digital infrastructure and digital skills, while others are how the digital economy is controlled. Considering these issues, policymakers and stakeholders in the digital economy must collaborate to make decisions that can harness the potential of digitalization to spread its benefits more equitably and empower the economy to combat rising inequalities. To remedy this, governments and policymakers can prioritize digital skill development in their various countries. Evidence suggests that there is a strong need to develop such relevant skills and other related competencies for the African economies to participate actively in the digital economy.

It is also critical to strengthen digital infrastructure. So far, the scope and pace of the direct benefits of improved access to the Internet and related digital technologies on local economic development in most African nations have been modest. Therefore, it is critical to provide access to steady Internet in digitally-enabled sectors in order to support more value creation in the digital economy. Similarly, collaboration and investment partnerships with more advanced digital economies and private sector actors will provide Africa with access to capital and digital technicalities/resources for long-term digital infrastructure development. 

Developing and implementing a legal regulatory framework for digital space control is essential. Unfortunately, many African economies lack the regulatory environment required to support digital development. A good starting point would be to initiate a regulatory gap assessment, which would constitute the basis for a comprehensive approach to formulating laws and regulations for the digital economy, and then incorporate baseline digital legislation or update  relevant regulations in accordance with global best practices.

Finally, boosting techpreneurs will act as a driver for digital economy growth in Africa. Gaining the most out of the digital economy involves strengthening the digital sector and initiatives that allow businesses from all sectors to take more advantage of digital technologies. In many African economies, the usage of ICTs by businesses, particularly micro and small businesses, is still minimal. With rising levels of digitization in several sectors, including agriculture, energy, health, e-commerce, and electronic payment, techpreneurs have a lot of potential to develop innovative digital solutions for those sectors. Firms that invest in and use digital technologies are more productive, innovative, and lucrative.

Final Remarks

Digital development could be the game-changer  for the African continent. It has the potential to  boost economic development and industrialization while also improving the business environment and alleviating poverty. Thus, Africa’s digital economy must improve. To improve the performance of the African digital economy and maximize the potential of digitalization, governments, policymakers, and key stakeholders should  collaborate to establish soft/hard digital infrastructure as well as a favourable regulatory environment for private sector investments and data protection. 

Beyond policy collaboration, the CSEA's Digital Governance Portal will act as a tracker for digital evolution in Africa. This will provide  annual trends and snapshots of Africa’s digital preparedness, development, and data governance. In addition, it keeps policymakers and governments up to date  on  current events in Africa's digital space.

The rapid growth of AI is swiftly changing the world of work and business. Embedded in this growth is its potential to create new opportunities for gender equality. However, if not properly engaged or utilized, AI also has the capacity to reinforce gender bias, stereotypes, and discrimination. AI is gaining a lot of attention through advancements in machine learning and the increasing use of algorithms for pattern recognition. It is used across various fields and sectors to shape our economic, political, cultural, and social interactions; used in areas such as approval of bank loans, job recruitment, medical diagnostics, etc.

World leaders and governments are showing their commitment to the growth of AI by investing heavily in it. The US government’s federal spending on AI rose to almost $1billion in 2020 - which is about a 50% increase from its spendings in 2018 and the Canadian government also invested about $125million in its AI strategy in 2017. The private sector on the other hand has a leading position in investment in AI. Global total AI investment by the private sector was over $50billion in 2021 with Nvidia Corp and Alphabet Inc (Google) in the forefront, owning a large portion of about 50% of the total investment. However, with the issues of accountability and privacy violation prevalent in the present digital platform operation, leaving the powerful tool of AI unchecked can foster some of social issues in the digital space including gender discrimination. Therefore, in order to truly advance gender equality and women’s empowerment, gender considerations and issues alongside regulatory policies need to be mainstreamed in AI.

Gender Bias and AI

The gender bias found in AI takes up two forms. Bias in terms of the exclusion of women from the AI sector and Bias found in the building of algorithms. Gender equality in the workplace has been a critical issue for decades. About 80% of the male gender make up the workforce of the AI industry with only about 18% female machine learning researchers. It should be of great concern that women make up only a small percentage of the technological workforce; an industry that is seen as a force for societal transformation.

The first steps in building algorithms are the selections of training datasets. AI-generated patterns, predictions and recommended actions are reflections of the accuracy, universality and reliability of the data sets used, as well as the inherent assumptions and biases of the developers of the algorithms employed. Although one can say that AI is as good as the people behind it, it is important to note that one of the potentials of AI lies in its capacity to generate new solutions within the limits of inputs received. This is a fundamental aspect that needs to be kept in mind while training and implementing AI solutions for better gender equality.  Preventing gender biases in software applications, therefore, calls for better corporate governance that includes diversity in hiring and retention practices and enabling a work culture where gender equality principles are explicit and prioritise accountability.

Diverse teams made up of both men and women are not just better at recognizing skewed data, but they're also more likely to spot issues that could have or result in negative societal outcomes. Thus, emphasising the need for higher participation of women and gender experts in the process of principle formulations at the foundation level, and an improvement in the representation of women in technical roles and in the boardrooms of tech companies. Talent acquisition, as well as women empowerment, will therefore be critical in bridging the gender gap in AI and helping women gain their ground in the industry.

The way forward in bridging the gap

Considering the two forms of gender bias mentioned above, the following are highlights of key issues and proposed recommendations that need to be addressed in order to bridge the gender gap in the AI industry.

• In the building of algorithms, an inclusive unbiased dataset needs be used as AI learn from historical patterns by predicting the future based on the past. Therefore, using historical records to train AI without being cautious about these biases is like repeating history, but this time with a more powerful tool.
• Women need to be given opportunities to play an active role in shaping the next generation of technologies, so diversity is considered, and stereotypes are not reproduced.
• Capacity building and empowerment of women through education at the grass-root level to help them break into the AI sector. Creating awareness of the AI industry for girls in schools to spark their interest and also providing support for women making career change to easily transition into the sector.
• Creation of a robust and gender-inclusive AI guidelines, principles, and codes of ethics within the technology industry to help regulate activities in the sector.

Rapid digitalization has the potential to enhance structural transformation among African countries as well as galvanize progress on regional developments like the recent African Continental Free Trade Area. However, these benefits are not guaranteed given the multipronged threats in the digital space that can limit trust and curtail the adoption of such innovations. Indeed, the platform-based business model that dominates the digital economy raises fundamental issues about data protection and citizens’ privacy. Likewise, the monopoly market structure that characterizes the digital platforms implies a winner-takes-all paradigm, leaving less for developing economies. Rising cybercrime, ransomware, and digital identity theft pose significant threats: African economies lost over $3.5 billion through cyberattacks in 2017 alone. The more worrisome threat emanates from the rise in the number of African states with spyware, surveillance, censorship, and internet shutdowns. This trend is affecting trust in the digital space.

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Africa enters 2022 with a long and urgent to-do list. In this blog, Adedeji Adeniran joins other experts to outline key political, economic, security and health issues the continent must contend with as it maps its COVID-19 recovery and post-pandemic reality.

TRADE

Africa remains underrepresented in global trade, accounting for 2.19% of global exports and 2.85% of global imports in 2020. The African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) can reverse this trend if it is effectively implemented. Launched in January 2021, the agreement is a crucial step towards boosting regional trade and economic development, but full trading activity is yet to commence due to ongoing negotiations on various protocols.

Concluding negotiations on the agreement on rules of origin (the “legal provisions used to determine the nationality of a product in the context of international trade”) and protocols on trade in e-commence and services is a priority. While these are unavoidably complex, the strain on economic growth due to COVID-19 necessitates the acceleration of the AfCFTA.

The newly launched Pan-African Payment and Settlement System (PAPSS) holds potential: the platform, developed by Afreximbank and the AfCFTA Secretariat, is expected to bolster intra-African trade by facilitating simpler and secure cross-border payments and reducing payment transaction costs by $5 billion annually. The African Trade Gateway, AfCFTA Adjustment Facility and Trade Finance Facility are also expected to take off, making 2022 a promising year for the effective operation and success of regional economic initiatives. However, it will take much longer for the continent to fully recover from the economic shocks of the pandemic.

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